Stavanger is a port city in the southwest of Norway and has a population of around 135,000. Stavanger’s European Capital of Culture (ECoC) programme was not only Stavanger’s project, but also included the nearby city of Sandnes as well as the wider Rogaland region. Stavanger used to be famous for its fish export industry, but it declined in the 1930s. After that the city was known for its canning industry, but that declined after the Second World War. As oil was discovered under the North Sea in the 1970s, Stavanger started to develop its petroleum industry and is known today as “the petroleum capital of Europe”. The discovery of oil has significantly increased the industrial base, economy and population of the city. Stavanger had a shortage of workers in the oil industry and one reason for them applying for the ECoC title was to increase their attractiveness in the eyes of skillful workers in order to lure them to Stavanger or the neighbouring areas. Another reason for applying for the ECoC was Stavanger’s will to diversify their economic base, because in the past a reliance on one source of income had led to economically challenging periods.

The total financial income from the ECoC was 39,5 million euros. Over 30% of this came from the Norwegian government. The Stavanger, Sandnes and the Rogaland communes allocated a total of 14,8M€ for the ECoC across the years 2004-2008. The total expenditure of the ECoC was 38,6M€, so a profit of 0,9M€ was made. 21,4% of Stavanger’s income came from commercial agreements, when the average ratio for ECoCs between 1995 and 2004 was 13%. In this light it’s fair to say that Stavanger was very successful in their fundraising and in securing sponsorship deals. Also, while increasing tourism was not specifically a major goal for Stavanger, there is anecdotal evidence that the bed occupancy rates increased by 11% during the title year.

Already before the ECoC Stavanger had many known cultural institutions, such as Sølvberget, a culture house that focuses on human rights, literature and freedom of speech. Also, there are many museums in Stavanger, like the Norwegian Canning Museum, the Archaeology Museum and the Norwegian Children’s Museum. Stavanger also hosts several annual festivals, such as MaiJazz, the Gladmat food festival and the International Chamber Music Festival. Despite this the ECoC stakeholders felt that Stavanger was not culturally particularly renowned outside of Norway and that its cultural sector was not ambitious. Indeed, this perceived lack of ambition was one of the main reasons for Stavanger’s ECoC bid, as it looked to increase the amount, diversity and quality of cultural offering in the city, in Sandnes and in the wider Rogaland region.

The overall theme of Stavanger’s application was “Open Port”, which can be understood in English as “open harbour” or in Norwegian as “open gate”. The application’s core values were artistic freedom, cultural diversity and cultural cohesion. These values of diversity and cultural openness were apparent already in the basic structure of the cultural programme for the title year, as its core was formed by four international groups of artists, each representing different forms of art (dance, theatre, music and puppetry) and originating from different countries (Belgium, Israel, Lithuania and South Africa). These companies stayed in Stavanger over the four quarters of 2008 and also included the local people in activities and workshops and collaborated with local cultural organizations. Indeed, one of Stavanger’s main goals was “to contribute to the establishment of enduring networks in the fields of arts and culture”.

While promoting the European dimension was not one of Stavanger’s main priorities, its cultural programme can be judged to have succeeded in this on many levels. For instance, many artists, curators and companies involved in the cultural programme were European. As an example, the Bocuse d’Or food competition had chefs from a number of different European countries. The North Sea Project is an example of a European exchange and collaboration between cultural operators in Stavanger and Scotland. This exchange saw 45 Scots visit Stavanger as 35 Norwegians travelled the other way, to the east of Scotland.

One of the most important objectives for the cultural programme was to “ensure a broad and enduring cultural lift, especially for children and the young”. Indeed, school children were included already in the planning of the programme and some were also included in committees. Also, the Youth and Migration project included secondary schools from around Europe and from the USA. Furthermore, especially the landscape and outdoor projects provided opportunities for people who didn’t often participate in cultural activities, such as isolated communities outside Stavanger and young people, to take part. An example of this type of project was the Mot Himlaleite, a major contemporary dance, film, music, extreme skiing and snowboarding event in the Sauda mountains which included around 1000 people from a small town with a population of only around 2000. Moreover, many cultural operators reported that the ECoC activities had resulted in local cultural organizations developing their skills and confidence, while also receiving more requests than before to deliver further cultural activities.

The locals had generally mostly positive feelings towards the programme of the title year, as 78% of respondents to a survey agreed that the ECoC had created a good atmosphere. In general, the locals reportedly enjoyed the programme and felt included. The Stavanger ECoC notably increased the cultural activity of the area as evaluated post-ECoC, which is also reflected by the 14,2% increase in funding for the region’s cultural organizations. Also, the ECoC can be assessed to have reached its goal of making the locals more internationally-minded as the objectives of increasing the cultural curiosity and tolerance of the locals were estimated to have increased. Furthermore, Stavanger developed a desire to hold on to and to create new links with future ECoCs and with international artists. Some cultural programme, such as Stavanger Rock, continued after the title year, and the choirs of Stavanger continued to work with international conductors. Stavanger also created a new cultural strategy for the years 2010-2017 to encourage further cultural activity. Moreover, many stakeholders said that the ECoC programme had developed the skills and the capacity of Stavanger, Sandnes and the Rogaland region to organize festivals and cultural events, while also developing fundraising skills and the ability to create formal contracts. Thanks to the ECoC, Stavanger, Sandnes and the Rogaland region now have stronger links with international partners, which can help boost the artistic community and cultural scene of the area long into the future.

The Austrian city of Linz, with a population of around 200,000 was nominated European Capital of Culture (ECoC) for 2009 together with the Lithuanian capital, Vilnius. Linz had several goals it wanted to achieve with the ECoC programme, such as establishing itself as a credible cultural destination that offers something different to other Austrian cities, like Vienna and Salzburg. Linz wanted to develop the local cultural scene and improve its tourist industry. Other important goals were to increase the locals’ pride in their city and to establish connections between local, regional and international cultural operators in order to sustain and build upon the benefits acquired during Linz09. It can be said that Linz achieved all these goals. Let’s have a look at how they did it and what indicators support this assessment.

The most essential reason for the success of Linz09 according to most stakeholders was the effective and constructive cooperation between the three public authorities; the city and the regional and national governments. The collaboration of other partners was also mostly constructive and cooperative, further contributing to the success of the ECoC. Another success factor was the recruitment of an experienced artistic team with plenty of international experience, as well as handing this team plenty of autonomy in planning the programme and allocating funds. Needless to say, there is always a risk in handing this kind of freedom, but without doing so it would probably have been impossible for Linz to acquire the services of such highly rated professionals. In the end, it can be said this was a calculated risk that paid off.

Out of the total budget for Linz09 (68,7M€) almost one fifth was put into marketing and communications. The advertising of the ECoC project can be viewed as a success in terms of the locals’ awareness and attitude towards it, as a survey three years prior to the title year in 2006 revealed that 91% of the residents of Linz knew that Linz was going to be the European Capital of Culture, and 88% of the respondents rated the ECoC title as “good” or “very good” for the city.

Data on tourism in Linz during the ECoC project suggests that the ECoC title saved the city from the worst effects of the global financial crisis, which had a clear detrimental effect on tourism in other Austrian cities, for example. Linz had 2,895,000 visitors in 2009, and a 10% increase in overnight visits compared to 2008. Meanwhile cities like Graz, Salzburg and Vienna experienced a drop of 1,8% – 4,6% in overnight stays during the same time period. The ECoC title had a positive effect also on the development of the hospitality services and infrastructure of the city, perhaps most notably with the addition of three new hotels, and many more improved or extended.

A study about the economic impact of the ECoC for the Upper Austria region, carried out by the economics department of Johannes Kepler University in Linz, estimates that between 2005 and 2010 the ECoC created 426 million euros of additional regional GDP. The same study suggests that Linz09 also created or secured 4,625 jobs. A clear majority of these effects were caused by physical infrastructure projects, like upgrading and extending the Postlingberg railway. Many of these projects were funded by the city and the region also from money that was not allocated for the ECoC project. 323M€ was invested into developing the infrastructure in Upper Austria, and the aforementioned study estimated that Linz09 and its associated infrastructure projects had approached break-even point when the study was conducted.

Linz did a lot to promote the European and global dimension during the title year, even though this was not one of its main goals. Evidence of this is for example the fact that artists from 66 different countries participated in the activities of Linz09. Many European festivals and events were held in Linz during the title year. Some of these, such as the Ars Electronica Festival, were events that had been organized in Linz also before the ECoC. Other events, like the 10^th European Youth Music Festival, were new, one-time events for Linz. Linz also deserves credit for exploring common European themes, most notably the Nazi period. Linz’s exploration and exhibition of its Nazi past is probably the most comprehensive look into the theme ever undertaken by an Austrian city, and they received a lot of international praise for this. Although some people also criticized Linz’s handling of such a delicate topic, most stakeholders felt that investigating this difficult theme helped the locals deal with these events from the past. Furthermore, events were held in Linz that celebrated cultural diversity, allowing different ethnic communities to interact with each other. An example of this type of activity is the intercultural gatherings hosted at the Völkergarten (People’s Park), where people from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds from the Neustadtviertel area of the city came together and interacted with each other.

Despite much of the cultural offering in Linz ending as the ECoC finished, there was some notable cultural continuity. Some programmes initiated in 2009 that continued post-ECoC included the Kepler Salon, a series of scientific dialogues hosted in the former home of the seventeenth-century astronomer; Turmeremit (Hermit of the Tower); the Next Comic, an interdisciplinary festival for comics and cartoon art, and the Pixel Hotel, a network of newly-created “hotel” rooms in unusual places across the city. The activities of Hörstadt (Acoustic City) deserve a special mention. In this programme the testing of new approaches to urban development problems like noise pollution were introduced and are currently being applied elsewhere. Moreover, the main stakeholders felt that the ECoC project gave Linz valuable experience in cultural governance. Experience for both individuals and institutions, improved collaboration, a more positive outlook and increased professionalism are all valuable gains that will benefit the city’s cultural governance in the future.

The biggest city in Turkey, Istanbul, with a population of over 15 million inhabitants, was one of the three European Capitals of Culture (ECoC) in 2010, together with Essen and the Ruhr region in Germany and the Hungarian city Pécs. The biggest investment, and perhaps the greatest success of the ECoC project for Istanbul, was the restoration and renovation of cultural and industrial heritage, most notably the restoration of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sites located on Istanbul’s historic peninsula: the Land Walls of Theodosius, Zeyrek Neighbourhood, Süleymaniye Neighbourhood and the Archaeological Park of Sultanahmet. This project included restoring the Saint Sophia Museum, sections of Topkapı Palace, development of Sultanahmet Square and the creation of a Management Plan for the Istanbul Historic Peninsula.

Istanbul 2010 may be considered a success also from the point of view of the size, scale and diversity of cultural events organized, as hundreds of cultural events took place in the Istanbul region during the ECoC project. According to a survey 70% of residents felt that the cultural offering in Istanbul had increased in 2010. The European Capital of Culture programme can be judged to have increased the residents’ interest in cultural events, as 58% of respondents to an inquiry that had participated in an ECoC event said that they would attend cultural events in the future as well due to the positive experience. Not only the demand for culture has increased, but statistics show that also cultural supply has soared. This can be seen in the number of companies working in the cultural and creative fields in Istanbul, which increased from 19, 493 to 23, 918 between 2009 and 2011, a 23% rise.

The European Capital of Culture programme may also be credited for increased tourism in Istanbul as the number of foreign visitors increased by 11% between 2009 and 2010. Also, the number of overnight stays by Turkish visitors in the city increased by 4% during the same time period. 15% of tourists who responded to a survey stated that the ECoC had had at least some impact on their decision to visit Istanbul.

One of the main goals of Istanbul 2010 was to create connections between Istanbul, Turkey and the rest of Europe through cultural collaboration and shared experiences. This target can be estimated to have been reached, at least in some respect, as according to a survey 59% of the locals felt that their outlook on European culture changed in a positive way due to the ECoC programme. The programme included collaborations with artists and operators from numerous countries. There was notable cooperation especially with the other titleholders for 2010, Essen and the Ruhr region and Pécs. Many Turkish artists performed in events in the other ECoC cities, and films from Essen and the Ruhr region and Pécs were shown in Istanbul. There were also numerous collaborations between different cities across Europe. The “41°-29° Istanbul Network”, for instance, consisted of 15 cities in Europe that created possibilities for intercultural collaboration between young artists. Furthermore, many of the 39 municipalities in Istanbul participated in cultural collaboration projects with their sister cities in Europe and elsewhere in the world for the first time ever. In addition, the cultural diversity of Istanbul was celebrated for example with shared cultural activities between the different cultural and ethnic groups, such as the majority Muslim community and the minority Jewish, Greek and Armenian communities, and other smaller groups.

In conclusion, Istanbul managed to renovate and reconstruct valuable culture sites that needed repairing in order to provide cultural services and experiences for future generations. Furthermore, the cultural demand and supply increased in Istanbul, at least partially due to the European Capital of Culture programme, which increased locals’ interest in cultural events and developed Istanbul as a culture city by supporting the creation of new companies in cultural and creative fields. Moreover, tourism increased in Istanbul, bringing financial benefits and further strengthening the city’s image as a vibrant culture destination in Europe. Finally, intercultural cooperation within Istanbul, as well as with European and global partners, contributed to the goal of bridging gaps between different cultural and ethnic groups and celebrating cultural diversity. In the end, Istanbul’s 2010 ECoC programme can be viewed as a success from many perspectives and will hopefully have created long lasting benefits for the city and motivate future ECoCs to strive towards reaching similar positive changes on several fronts.

The Hungarian city of Pécs was one of the three European Capitals of Culture (ECoC ) in 2010, together with Essen (which included the Ruhr region in its project) and Istanbul. For Pécs, the most important investment regarding the project was developing the infrastructure of the city. The five major projects, the South-Transdanubian Regional Library and Knowledge Centre, the revival of public spaces and parks, the Kodály Centre (concert hall), the reconstruction of Museum Street and the reconstruction of Zsolnay Cultural Quarter cost in total around 140 million euros. The ECoC also most likely accelerated the construction of the highway between Pécs and Budapest, which further improved the accessibility of Pécs for visitors.

The Ex-post evaluation of 2010 European Capitals of Culture noted that many ECoCs could learn from Pécs in how well investments in infrastructure can benefit an area. Although Pécs invested heavily, they have already had many benefits from the investments, and are expected to have many more in the long run. The new and renovated spaces have allowed a lot of people from different backgrounds to enjoy the services of these places. The new constructions, such as the Kodály Centre, have increased employment, and will continue to do so in the future. The Kodály Centre will also provide high-quality facilities for local organizations such as the Pannon Philharmonics, as well as for music students.

Statistics show that the image of Pécs as a cultural city improved significantly in the eyes of Hungarians during the ECoC 2010. By the end of 2010, 56% of respondents rated Pécs as the second most significant city in Hungary from a cultural point of view after Budapest. One year previously the result had been 35%. By the title year the locals had significantly changed their mindset regarding the programme. This can be seen in respondents’ answers to surveys regarding their attitude towards the ECoC project. During the title year 68% of the respondents had a positive attitude towards the programme, whereas 2-3 years prior only 35% had positive feelings towards the project.

The European Capital of Culture 2010 project has been very beneficial also for cultural operators and stakeholders in the city, as they have gained valuable experience in planning and organizing various events. Furthermore, financial benefits were attained due to increased tourism during the title year as, according to the National Statistical Office, the number of visitors in Pécs increased by 27,5% from the previous year. The number of foreign visitors increased by 71% from 2009.

In conclusion, the European Capital of Culture programme for Pécs in 2010 can be viewed as a success from the point of view of both instant cultural impact as well as long term cultural development.